25 When you stand and pray, forgive anything you may have against anyone, so that your Father in heaven will forgive the wrongs you have done.

38 “You have heard that it was said, ‘An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth.’ 39 But now I tell you: do not take revenge on someone who wrongs you. If anyone slaps you on the right cheek, let him slap your left cheek too. 40 And if someone takes you to court to sue you for your shirt, let him have your coat as well. 41 And if one of the occupation troops forces you to carry his pack one kilometre, carry it two kilometres. 42 When someone asks you for something, give it to him; when someone wants to borrow something, lend it to him.

43 “You have heard that it was said, ‘Love your friends, hate your enemies.’ 44 But now I tell you: love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, 45 so that you may become the children of your Father in heaven. For he makes his sun to shine on bad and good people alike, and gives rain to those who do good and to those who do evil. 46 Why should God reward you if you love only the peop le who love you? Even the tax collectors do that! 47 And if you speak only to your friends, have you done anything out of the ordinary? Even the pagans do that! You must be perfect—just as your Father in heaven is perfect!

35 Then Jesus asked his disciples, “When I sent you out that time without purse, bag, or shoes, did you lack anything?” “Not a thing,” they answered. 36 “But now,” Jesus said, “whoever has a purse or a bag must take it; and whoever has no sword must sell his coat and buy one. 37 For I tell you that the scripture which says, ‘He shared the fate of criminals,’ must come true about me, because what was written about me is coming true.” 38 The disciples said, “Look! Here are two swords, Lord!” “That is enough!” he replied.

Explanation of "That is enough!"

G.B. Caird, St. Luke (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1963, page 241) explains:

The instruction to sell their coats and buy swords is an example of Jesus' fondness for violent metaphor (cf. Matt. 23:24, Mark 10:25), but the disciples take it literally, as pedants have continued to do ever since. The words 'It is enough' indicate, not satisfaction with the disciples' military preparedness, but a sad dismissal of the subject (cf. 1 Kings 10:4, Mark 14:41).

Caird's analysis of "That is enough!," which is shared by many scholars, finds support several verses later in the description of Jesus' arrest in Mat 26:50-52 and Luk 22:49-51, in the citations immediately below.

47 Jesus was still speaking when a crowd arrived, led by Judas, one of the twelve disciples. He came up to Jesus to kiss him. 48 But Jesus said, “Judas, is it with a kiss that you betray the Son of Man?” 49 When the disciples who were with Jesus saw what was going to happen, they asked, “Shall we use our swords, Lord?” 50 And one of them struck the High Priest’s slave and cut off his right ear. 51 But Jesus said, “Enough of this!” He touched the man’s ear and healed him.

The Arrest of Jesus - Mat 26:50-52 (Mark 14.43-50; Luke 22.47-53; John 18.3-11)

50 ...Then they came up, arrested Jesus, and held him tight. 51 One of those who were with Jesus drew his sword and struck at the High Priest’s slave, cutting off his ear. 52 “Put your sword back in its place,” Jesus said to him. “All who take the sword will die by the sword."

36 Jesus said, “My kingdom does not belong to this world; if my kingdom belonged to this world, my followers would fight to keep me from being handed over to the Jewish authorities. No, my kingdom does not belong here!”

 

• Paul (Bible dictionary definition)
• Paul (topical index)
• Paul and the churches with whom he was in contact (a brief chronology)
• Paul - from terrorism to ministry (a BibleTexts.com article)

1 Now that we have been put right with God through faith, we have peace with God through our Lord Jesus Christ. 2 He has brought us by faith into this experience of God’s grace, in which we now live. And so we boast of the hope we have of sharing God’s glory! 3 We also boast of our troubles, because we know that trouble produces endurance, 4 endurance brings God’s approval, and his approval creates hope. 5 This hope does not disappoint us, for God has poured out his love into our hearts by means of the Holy Spirit, who is God’s gift to us.

6 For when we were still helpless, Christ died for the wicked at the time that God chose. 7 It is a difficult thing for someone to die for a righteous person. It may even be that someone might dare to die for a good person. 8 But God has shown us how much he loves us—it was while we were still sinners that Christ died for us! 9 By his blood we are now put right with God; how much more, then, will we be saved by him from God’s anger! 10 We were God’s enemies, but he made us his friends through the death of his Son. Now that we are God’s friends, how much more will we be saved by Christ’s life! 11 But that is not all; we rejoice because of what God has done through our Lord Jesus Christ, who has now made us God’s friends.

31 If God is for us, who can be against us? 32 Certainly not God, who did not even keep back his own Son, but offered him for us all! He gave us his Son—will he not also freely give us all things? 33 Who will accuse God’s chosen people? God himself declares them not guilty! 34 Who, then, will condemn them? Not Christ Jesus, who died, or rather, who was raised to life and is at the right-hand side of God, pleading with him for us! 35 Who, then, can separate us from the love of Christ? Can trouble do it, or hardship or persecution or hunger or poverty or danger or death? As the scripture says, “For your sake we are in danger of death at all times; we are treated like sheep that are going to be slaughtered.” 37 No, in all these things we have complete victory through him who loved us! 38 For I am certain that nothing can separate us from his love: neither death nor life, neither angels nor other heavenly rulers or powers, neither the present nor the future, 39 neither the world above nor the world below—there is nothing in all creation that will ever be able to separate us from the love of God which is ours through Christ Jesus our Lord.

1 So then, my brothers and sisters, because of God’s great mercy to us I appeal to you: offer yourselves as a living sacrifice to God, dedicated to his service and pleasing to him. This is the true worship that you should offer. 2 Do not conform yourselves to the standards of this world, but let God transform you inwardly by a complete change of your mind. Then you will be able to know the will of God—what is good and is pleasing to him and is perfect.

14 Ask God to bless those who persecute you—yes, ask him to bless, not to curse... 17 If someone has done you wrong, do not repay him with a wrong. Try to do what everyone considers to be good. 18 Do everything possible on your part to live in peace with everybody. Never take revenge, my friends, but instead let God’s anger do it. For the scripture says, “I will take revenge, I will pay back, says the Lord.” Instead, as the scripture says: “If your enemies are hungry, feed them; if they are thirsty, give them a drink; for by doing this you will make them burn with shame.” 21 Do not let evil defeat you; instead, conquer evil with good.

13 I am speaking now to you Gentiles: as long as I am an apostle to the Gentiles, I will take pride in my work. 14 Perhaps I can make the people of my own race jealous, and so be able to save some of them. 15 For when they were rejected, the human race was changed from God’s enemies into his friends. What will it be, then, when they are accepted? It will be life for the dead!

25 There is a secret truth, my brothers and sisters, which I want you to know, for it will keep you from thinking how wise you are. It is that the stubbornness of the people of Israel is not permanent, but will last only until the complete number of Gentiles comes to God. 26 And this is how all Israel will be saved. As the scripture says: “The Saviour will come from Zion and remove all wickedness from the descendants of Jacob. 27 I will make this covenant with them when I take away their sins.” 28 Because they reject the Good News, the Jews are God’s enemies for the sake of you Gentiles. But because of God’s choice, they are his friends because of their ancestors. 29 For God does not change his mind about whom he chooses and blesses. 30 As for you Gentiles, you disobeyed God in the past; but now you have received God’s mercy because the Jews were disobedient. 31 In the same way, because of the mercy that you have received, the Jews now disobey God, in order that they also may now receive God’s mercy. 32 For God has made all people prisoners of disobedience, so that he might show mercy to them all.

1 So then, my brothers and sisters, because of God’s great mercy to us I appeal to you: offer yourselves as a living sacrifice to God, dedicated to his service and pleasing to him. This is the true worship that you should offer. 2 Do not conform yourselves to the standards of this world, but let God transform you inwardly by a complete change of your mind. Then you will be able to know the will of God—what is good and is pleasing to him and is perfect.

14 Ask God to bless those who persecute you—yes, ask him to bless, not to curse... 17 If someone has done you wrong, do not repay him with a wrong. Try to do what everyone considers to be good. 18 Do everything possible on your part to live in peace with everybody. Never take revenge, my friends, but instead let God’s anger do it. For the scripture says, “I will take revenge, I will pay back, says the Lord.” Instead, as the scripture says: “If your enemies are hungry, feed them; if they are thirsty, give them a drink; for by doing this you will make them burn with shame.” 21 Do not let evil defeat you; instead, conquer evil with good.

1 Everyone must obey the state authorities, because no authority exists without God’s permission, and the existing authorities have been put there by God. 2 Whoever opposes the existing authority opposes what God has ordered; and anyone who does so will bring judgment on himself. 3 For rulers are not to be feared by those who do good, but by those who do evil. Would you like to be unafraid of those in authority? Then do what is good, and they will praise you, 4 because they are God’s servants working for your own good. But if you do evil, then be afraid of them, because their power to punish is real. They are God’s servants and carry out God’s punishment on those who do evil. 5 For this reason you must obey the authorities — not just because of God’s punishment, but also as a matter of conscience. 6 That is also why you pay taxes, because the authorities are working for God when they fulfill their duties. Pay, then, what you owe them; 7 pay them your personal and property taxes, and show respect and honour for them all.

[For important additional commentary on Rom 13:1-4, browse also http://www.bibletexts.com/qa/qa097.htm#civil-authorities.]

8 Be under obligation to no one — the only obligation you have is to love one another. Whoever does this has obeyed the Law. The commandments, “Do not commit adultery; do not commit murder; do not steal; do not desire what belongs to someone else” — all these, and any others besides, are summed up in the one command, “Love your neighbour as you love yourself.” 10 If you love someone, you will never do them wrong; to love, then, is to obey the whole Law. 11 You must do this, because you know that the time has come for you to wake up from your sleep. For the moment when we will be saved is closer now than it was when we first believed. 12 The night is nearly over, day is almost here. Let us stop doing the things that belong to the dark, and let us take up weapons for fighting in the light. 13 Let us conduct ourselves properly, as people who live in the light of day — no orgies or drunkenness, no immorality or indecency, no fighting or jealousy. 14 But take up the weapons of the Lord Jesus Christ, and stop paying attention to your sinful nature and satisfying its desires.

11 To this very moment we go hungry and thirsty; we are clothed in rags; we are beaten; we wander from place to place; 12 we wear ourselves out with hard work. When we are cursed, we bless; when we are persecuted, we endure; 13 when we are insulted, we answer with kind words. We are no more than this world’s refuse; we are the scum of the earth to this very moment!

1 God in his mercy has given us this work to do, and so we are not discouraged... 5 For it is not ourselves that we preach; we preach Jesus Christ as Lord, and ourselves as your servants for Jesus’ sake. 6 The God who said, “Out of darkness the light shall shine!” is the same God who made his light shine in our hearts, to bring us the knowledge of God’s glory shining in the face of Christ. 7 Yet we who have this spiritual treasure are like common clay pots, in order to show that the supreme power belongs to God, not to us. 8 We are often troubled, but not crushed; sometimes in doubt, but never in despair; 9 there are many enemies, but we are never without a friend; and though badly hurt at times, we are not destroyed.

14 We are ruled by the love of Christ, now that we recognize that one man died for everyone, which means that all share in his death. 15 He died for all, so that those who live should no longer live for themselves, but only for him who died and was raised to life for their sake.

16 No longer, then, do we judge anyone by human standards. Even if at one time we judged Christ according to human standards, we no longer do so. 17 Anyone who is joined to Christ is a new being; the old is gone, the new has come. 18 All this is done by God, who through Christ changed us from enemies into his friends and gave us the task of making others his friends also. 19 Our message is that God was making the whole human race his friends through Christ. God did not keep an account of their sins, and he has given us the message which tells how he makes them his friends.

20 Here we are, then, speaking for Christ, as though God himself were making his appeal through us. We plead on Christ’s behalf: let God change you from enemies into his friends!

3 It is true that we live in the world, but we do not fight from worldly motives. 4 The weapons we use in our fight are not the world’s weapons but God’s powerful weapons, which we use to destroy strongholds. We destroy false arguments; 5 we pull down every proud obstacle that is raised against the knowledge of God; we take every thought captive and make it obey Christ.

24 Five times I was given the thirty-nine lashes by the Jews; three times I was whipped by the Romans; and once I was stoned. I have been in three shipwrecks, and once I spent twenty-four hours in the water. In my many travels I have been in danger from floods and from robbers, in danger from fellow-Jews and from Gentiles; there have been dangers in the cities, dangers in the wilds, dangers on the high seas, and dangers from false friends. 27 There has been work and toil; often I have gone without sleep; I have been hungry and thirsty; I have often been without enough food, shelter, or clothing. 28 And not to mention other things, every day I am under the pressure of my concern for all the churches... 32 When I was in Damascus, the governor under King Aretas placed guards at the city gates to arrest me. But I was let down in a basket through an opening in the wall and escaped from him.

10 I am content with weaknesses, insults, hardships, persecutions, and difficulties for Christ’s sake. For when I am weak, then I am strong.

16 Let the Spirit direct your lives, and you will not satisfy the desires of the human nature. For what our human nature wants is opposed to what the Spirit wants, and what the Spirit wants is opposed to what our human nature wants. These two are enemies, and this means that you cannot do what you want to do. 18 If the Spirit leads you, then you are not subject to the Law.

19 What human nature does is quite plain. It shows itself in immoral, filthy, and indecent actions; 20 in worship of idols and witchcraft. People become enemies and they fight; they become jealous, angry, and ambitious. They separate into parties and groups; 21 they are envious, get drunk, have orgies, and do other things like these. I warn you now as I have before: those who do these things will not possess the Kingdom of God.

22 But the Spirit produces love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, 23humility, and self-control. There is no law against such things as these

Prayer: Give unity and peace both to us and to all that dwell upon the earth, as thou gavest to our fathers when they called upon thee with faith and truth, so that we should become obedient to thy all-powerful and most excellent name, and to those who rule and govern us upon the earth. (1 Clement 60:4)

Take heed, then, often to come together to give thanks to God, and show forth His praise. For when ye assemble frequently in the same place, the powers of Satan are destroyed, and the destruction at which he aims is prevented by the unity of your faith. Nothing is more precious than peace, by which all war, both in heaven and earth, is brought to an end. (110 A.D., The Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians, Chapter XIII)

He who raised Him up from the dead will raise up us also, if we do His will, and walk in His commandments, and love what He loved, keeping ourselves from all unrighteousness, covetousness, love of money, evil speaking, falsewitness; "not rendering evil for evil, or railing for railing," or blow for blow, or cursing for cursing, but being mindful of what the Lord said in His teaching: "Judge not, that ye be not judged; forgive, and it shall be forgiven unto you; be merciful, that ye may obtain mercy; with what measure ye mete, it shall be measured to you again; and once more, "Blessed are the poor, and those that are persecuted for righteousness' sake, for theirs is the kingdom of God." (The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians, Chapter II)

Let the presbyters be compassionate and merciful to all, bringing back those that wander, visiting all the sick, and not neglecting the widow, the orphan, or the poor, but always "providing for that which is becoming in the sight of God and man;" abstaining from all wrath, respect of persons, and unjust judgment; keeping far off from all covetousness, not quickly crediting [an evil report] against any one, not severe in judgment, as knowing that we are all under a debt of sin. If then we entreat the Lord to forgive us, we ought also ourselves to forgive; for we are before the eyes of our Lord and God, and "we must all appear at the judgment-seat of Christ, and must every one give an account of himself." (The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians, Chapter VI)

Pray also for kings, and potentates, and princes, and for those that persecute and hate you, and for the enemies of the cross, that your fruit may be manifest to all, and that ye may be perfect in Him. (The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians, Chapter XII)

By burning Polycarp, the people of Smyrna thought they would blot out his name forever and bring an end to the hated superstition called Christianity. But like the proconsul, they grossly underestimated the vitality and conviction of the Christians. Rather than intimidating other Christians, the death of Polycarp inspired them. Rather than disappearing, Christianity grew. Ironically, what the Romans couldn't accomplish was eventually accomplished by professing Christians themselves. Today, the name of Polycarp has been largely forgotten, and the Christianity of his day is unknown to most westerners.

The church was like a naive young girl who had been suddenly swept off her feet by a rival suitor. The world wanted to be friends with the church, and the church saw no harm in reciprocating... However, the world's friendship utterly gutted the very soul of the church... One of the immediate effects of the church's friendship with the world was that it began adopting the world's methods... For example, the church changed its methods of coping with persecution and government oppression. In the past Christians had to hide or flee from persecution. They refused to physically fight their persecutors or retaliate against them. However, the crowds of unregenerated persons who had bloated the church weren't about to meekly accept death, torture, or oppression.

For example, when Constantine's son sent one of his generals to Constantinople to depose the church's bishop, the congregation formed a mob. That night when the general was asleep, the mob set his lodging house on fire. When he finally ran out of the house, dazed and coughing from the smoke, they pounced on him. Then they dragged him through the cobblestone streets of the city and savagely beat him to death. This was no isolated case; it was the normal response of the fourth century church to governmental oppression. The character of Christianity had changed!

 

We who formerly murdered one another now refrain from making war even upon our enemies. (c. 160), ANF 1.176.

We used to be filled with war, mutual slaughter, and every kind of wickedness. However, now all of us have, throughout the whole earth, changed our warlike weapons. We have changed our swords into plowshares, and our spears into farming implements. (c. 160), ANF 1.254.

I do not wish to be a king. I am not anxious to be rich. I decline military command. (c. 160), ANF 2.69.

We have learned not to return blow for blow, nor to go to law with those who plunder and rob us. Instead, even to those who strike us on one side of the face, we offer the other side also. (c. 175), ANF 2.129.

Irenaeus was bishop of the church at Lyons, Gaul (modern-day France). When he was a boy, Irenaeus had heard Polycarp teach. From this, it is generally supposed that Irenaeus was a native of Smyrna. In 190, Irenaeus wrote to Victor, bishop of Rome, pleading tolerance for the Christians of Asia Minor who celebrated Easter on a different day than did Rome. He is classified as both Eastern and Western, since he was from an Eastern background but ministered in the West. His Adversus Omnes Haereses is a detailed attacks on Gnosticism, especially the systems of Valentinus, and on the millenarianism, which was popular in Montanist circles.

The new covenant that brings back peace and the law that gives life have gone forth over the whole earth, as the prophets said: "For out of Zion will go forth the law, and the word of the Lord from Jerusalem; and he will rebuke many people; and they will break down their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruninghooks, and they will no longer learn to fight." ... These people [i.e., Christians] formed their swords and war-lances into plowshares,... that is, into instruments used for peaceful purposes. So now, they are unaccustomed to fighting. When they are struck, they offer also the other cheek. (c. 180) ANF 1.512.

Clement was a highly educated Christian convert from paganism and a pioneer of Christian scholarship. He became a Christian teacher at Alexandria, Egypt, and in 190 succeeded Pantaenus as head of the catechetical school there. Origen was one of his pupils. In his largest extant work, Miscellanies, Clement attempted unsuccessfully to wrest the term "gnostic" (one who knows) away from heretics and give it a Christian meaning. [To avoid confusion, the David Bercot (editor of A Dictionary of Early Christian Beliefs, the source of most of the quotes on this webpage) rendered Clement's "gnostic" as "spiritual man.") In 202 Clement was forced by persecution to flee. His main works, Protrepticus, the Paedagogus, and the Stromateis, brought Christian doctrine face to face with the ideas and achievements of his time. He agreed with the Gnostics in holding 'gnosis' or religious knowledge to be the chief element in Christian perfection, but for him the only true 'gnosis' was that which presupposed the faith of the Church. Christ, the Logos, was both the source of human reason and the interpreter of God to mankind. He became a man in order to give a supreme revelation, and through Him men might partake of immortality.

It is not in war, but in peace, that we are trained. (c. 195), ANF 2.234.

The Scythians, the Celts, the Iberians, and the Thracians are all warlike races. They are also greatly addicted to intoxication and think that drunkenness is an honorable, happy pursuit to engage in. But we, the people of peace, feast for lawful enjoyment, not to wantonness. We drink sober cups of friendship. (c. 195), ANF 2.246

The spiritual man never cherishes resentment or harbors a grudge against anyone -- even though deserving of hatred for his conduct. (c. 195), ANF 2.540.

Paul does not merely describe the spiritual man as being characterized by suffering wrong, rather than doing wrong. Rather, Paul teaches that a Christian does not keep count of injuries. For Paul does not allow him even to pray against the man who has done wrong to him. For he knows that the Lord expressly commanded us to pray for our enemies. (c. 195), ANF 2.548.

Christians are not allowed to use violence to correct the delinquencies of sins. (c. 195), ANF 2.581.

But for a man, bare feet are quite in keeping -- except when he is on military service. (c. 195), ANF 2.267.

Tertullian was a brilliant, fiery Christian apologist and polemicist writer in Carthage, North Africa. He was brought up as a pagan and may have practiced law. As a Christian writer he laid the foundations of Christology and trinitarian orthodoxy in the West. He may have been an ordained presbyter. He wrote numerous apologies, works against heretics, and exhortations to other Christians -- nearly all of which are in Latin. Near the beginning of the third century, he came under the influence of the Montanist sect. Around 211, he seems to have left the church to join an ascetic Montanist congregation, although this is not certain. The Montanist sect differed from the church primarily on matters of discipline, not theological doctrines. Some believe that Tertullian's estrangement from the main church was due to the church's laxity.

The one instrument of peace is what we employ: the Word alone, by whom we honor God. We no longer use the ancient psaltery, trumpet, timbrel, and flute. For those who are God puts His prohibition on every sort of man-killing by that one inclusive commandment: "You shall not kill." (c. 197), ANF 3.80.

"Nation will not take up sword against nation, and they will no more learn to fight." Who else, therefore, does this prophecy apply to, other than us? For we are fully taught by the new law, and therefore observe these practices ... The practice of the old law was to avenge itself by the vengeance of the sword. It was to pluck out "eye for eye," and to inflict retaliatory revenge for injury. However, the teaching of the new law points to clemency. It changes the primitive ferocity of swords and lances to tranquility. It remodels the primitive execution of war upon the rivals and enemies of the Law into the peaceful actions of plowing and cultivating the land. (c. 197), ANF 3.154.

We, on the contrary, bring before you an emperor who was their protector. You will see this by examining the letters of Marcus Aurelius, that most serious of emperors. For, in his letters, he bears witness that the Germanic drought was removed by the rains obtained through the prayers of the Christians, who happened to be fighting under him. (c. 197), ANF 3.22.

We sail with you, serve in the military with you, and cultivate the ground with you. (c. 197), ANF 3.49.

Now inquiry is made about the point of whether a believer may enter into military service. The question is also asked whether those in the military may be admitted into the faith even the rank and file (or any inferior grade), who are not required to take part in sacrifices or capital punishments ... A man cannot give his allegiance to two masters -- God and Caesar ... How will a Christian man participate in war? In fact, how will he serve even in peace without a sword? For the Lord has taken the sword away. It is also true that soldiers came to John [the Baptist] and received the instructions for their conduct. It is true also that a centurion believed. Nevertheless, the Lord afterward, in disarming Peter, disarmed every soldier. (c. 200), ANF 3.73.

Men of old were used to requiring "eye for eye, and tooth for tooth" and to repay evil for evil, with usury! ... But after Christ has supervened and has united the grace of faith with patience, now it is no longer lawful to attack others even with words, nor to merely say "fool," without danger of the judgment... Christ says, "Love your enemies and bless your cursers, and pray for your persecutors." (c. 200), ANF 3.711.

If someone attempts to provoke you by physical violence, the admonition of the Lord is at hand. He says, "To him who strikes you on the face, turn the other cheek also." Let outrageousness be worn out by your patience. Whatever that blow may be, joined with pain and scorn, it will receive a heavier one from the Lord. (c. 200), ANF 3.712.

For what difference is there between provoker and provoked? The only difference is that the former was the first to do evil, but the latter did evil afterwards. Each one stands condemned in the eyes of the Lord for hurting a man. For God both prohibits and condemns every wickedness. In evil doing, there is no account taken of the order... The commandment is absolute: evil is not to be repaid with evil. (c. 200), ANF 3.713.

"And they will beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks." In other words, they will change the dispositions of injurious minds, hostile tongues, blasphemy, and all kinds of evil into pursuits of moderation and peace. "Nation will not lift up sword against nation." That is, they will not stir up conflict. "Neither will they learn war any more"-that is, the provocation of hostilities. So you should learn from this that Christ was not promised to be powerful in war. Rather, He was promised to pursue peace. Now, you must deny either that these things were foretold (although they are plainly seen) or that they have been fulfilled (although you read of them). (c. 207) 3.339-340.

The Lord will save them in that day -- even His people -- like sheep... No one gives the name of "sheep" to those who fall in battle with arms in hand, or those who are killed when repelling force with force. Rather, it is given only to those who are slain, yielding themselves up in their own place of duty and with patience -- rather than fighting in self-defense. (c. 207), ANF 3.415.

The soldiers, crowned with laurels, were approaching. However, one of them was more a soldier of God. In fact, he was more steadfast than the rest of his brethren, who had imagined that they could serve two masters. His head alone was uncovered, for he held the useless wreath in his hand. By that peculiarity alone, he was recognized by everyone as being a Christian. (c. 211), ANF 3.93.

Of course, if faith comes later and finds someone already occupied with military service, their case is different. For example, there is the instance of those whom John [the Baptist] received for baptism, and of those most faithful centurions. I mean the centurion whom Christ approved, and the centurion whom Peter instructed [i.e., Cornelius]. Yet, at the same time, when a man has become a believer and faith has been sealed, there must be either an immediate abandonment of the military office, which has been the course of many-or else all sorts of quibbling will have to be resorted to in order to avoid offending God. And such quibbling is not allowed even outside of military service. (c. 211), ANF 3.100.

I think we must first inquire whether warfare is proper at all for Christians. What point is there in discussing the merely incidental, when that on which it rests is to be condemned? Do we believe it is lawful for a human oath to be added to one that is divine? Is it lawful for a man to come to be pledged to another master after Christ has become his Master? Is it lawful to renounce father, mother, and all nearest kinsfolk, whom even the Law has commanded us to honor and love next to God himself?... Is it lawful to make an occupation of the sword, when the Lord proclaims that he who uses the sword will perish by the sword? Will the son of peace take part in the battle when it does not become him even to sue at law? Will he who is not the avenger even of his own wrongs, apply the chain, the prison, the torture, and the punishment? (c. 211) 3.100.

Is the [military] laurel of triumph made of leaves, or of corpses? Is it adorned with ribbons, or with tombs? Is it wet with ointments, or with the tears of wives and mothers? It may be made of some [dead] Christians too. For Christ is also believed among the barbarians. (c. 211) 3.101.

Our religion commands us to love even our enemies, and to pray for those who persecute us. (c. 212) 3.105.

Marcus Aurelius, also, in his expedition to Germany, got rain in that well-known thirst by the prayers that his Christian soldiers offered to God. (c. 212), ANF 3.107.

Believed to have come from Palestine, Hippolytus was a leading presbyter in the church in Rome near the beginning of the third century. He was personally familiar with Origen. He attacked the theology and discipline of two Roman bishops, Zephyrinus and Callistus, and apparently led a schism in the Roman church for a while. His principal work was the Refutation of All Heresies. Among other works, he also wrote commentaries on Daniel, the Song of songs, and other sacred texts. In the persecution of Emperor Maximin, Hippolytus and Pope Pontianus (230-235) were both exiled to Sardinia. The bodies of both were brought back to Rom in 236. He had died a martyr.

A soldier of the civil authority must be taught not to kill men and to refuse to do so if he is commanded, and to refuse to take an oath. If he is unwilling to comply, he must be rejected for baptism. A military commander or civic magistrate who wears the purple must resign or be rejected. If an applicant or a believer seeks to become a soldier, he must be rejected, for he has despised God." (c. 200, Apostolic Tradition 16:17-19)

Alternative translation by Everett Ferguson: A soldier of the the government must be told not to execute men; if he should be ordered to do it, he shall not do it. He must be told not to take a military oath. If he will not agree, let him be rejected [from baptism]. A military governor or a magistrate of a city who wears the purple, either let him desist or let him be rejected. If a catechumen or a baptized Christian wishes to become a soldier, let him be cast out. For he has despised God.

The existence of many kingdoms would have been a hindrance to the spread of the doctrine of Jesus throughout the entire world... This was because of the need for men everywhere to engage in war and fight on behalf of their native country -- -which was the case before the times of Augustus... How, then, was it possible for the Gospel doctrine of peace to prevail throughout the world? For it does not permit men to take vengeance even upon their enemies. It was only possible because, at the coming of Jesus, a milder spirit had been everywhere introduced into the conduct of things. (c. 248), ANF 4.444.

The statement [of Celsus, a pagan critic] is false "that in the days of Jesus, others who were Jews rebelled against the Jewish state and became His followers." For neither Celsus, nor those who think like him, are able to point out any act on the part of Christians that hints of rebellion. In fact, if a revolt had led to the formation of the Christian commonwealth, the Christian Lawgiver would not have altogether forbidden the putting of men to death. So it could not have derived its existence in such a way from the Jews. For they were permitted to take up arms in defense of the members of their families and to slay their enemies. Yet, Christ nowhere teaches that it is right for His own disciples to offer violence to anyone, no matter how wicked. For He did not consider it to be in accord with His laws to allow the killing of any individual whomever. For His laws were derived from a divine source. Indeed, if the Christians truly owed their origin to a rebellion, they would not have adopted laws of so exceedingly mild a character. For their laws do not allow them on any occasion to resist their persecutors, even when it was their fate to be slain as sheep. (c. 248), ANF 4.467.

Christians were taught not to avenge themselves upon their enemies... They would not have made war (although capable) even if they had received authority to do so. For they have obtained this reward from God: that He has always warred on their behalf. On certain occasions, he has restrained those who rose up against them and desired to destroy them... On special occasions, some have endured death for the sake of Christianity, and those individuals can be easily numbered. However, God has not permitted the whole nation [of Christians] to be exterminated. (c. 248), ANF 4.467, 468.

Perhaps the so-called wars among the bees convey instructions as to the manner in which wars should be waged in a just and orderly way among men -- if ever there arise a necessity for them. (c. 248), ANF 4.533.

To those who inquire of us from where we come, or who is our founder, we reply that we have come agreeably to the counsels of Jesus. We have cut down our hostile, insolent, and wearisome swords into plowshares. We have converted into pruning hooks the spears that were formerly used in war. For we no longer take up "sword against nation," nor do we "learn war any more." That is because we have become children of peace for the sake of Jesus, who is our Leader. (c. 248), ANF 4.558.

Celsus [a pagan critic] adds...

"How could God command the Israelites through Moses to gather wealth, to extend their dominion, to fill the earth, to put their enemies of every age to the sword, and to destroy them utterly?... For, on the other hand, His Son, the man of Nazareth, promulgated laws quite opposed to these. He declared that no one can come to the Father who loves power, riches, or glory. Jesus said that to anyone who has given them one blow, they should offer to receive another. So is it Moses or Jesus who taught falsely? When the Father sent Jesus, did He forget the commands that He had given to Moses? Or did He change his mind, condemn His own laws, and send forth a Messenger with opposite instructions?" ...

[ORIGEN'S REPLY:] We would observe that it must be impossible for the legislation of Moses, taken literally, to harmonize with the calling of the Gentiles and with their subjection to the Roman government. On the other hand, it would be impossible for the Jews to preserve their civil economy unchanged if they were to embrace the gospel. For Christians could not slay their enemies. Nor could they condemn those who had broken the law to be burned or stoned, as Moses commands... However, in the case of the ancient Jews, who had a land and a form of government of their own, to take from them the right of making war upon their enemies, of fighting for their country, of putting to death or otherwise punishing adulterers, murderers, or others who were guilty of similar crimes, would have been to subject them to sudden and utter destruction whenever the enemy fell upon them. For, in that case, their very laws would restrain them and prevent them from resisting the enemy. Yet, that same providence that of old gave the Law, and has now given the gospel of Jesus Christ, has destroyed their city and their temple, not wishing the Jewish state to continue any longer... However, this providence has extended the Christian religion day by day, so that it is now preached everywhere with boldness. And this is in spite of the numerous obstacles that oppose the spread of Christ's teaching in the world. However, since it was the purpose of God that the nations should receive the benefits of Christ's teaching, all the devices of men against Christians have been brought to nothing. For the more that kings, rulers, and peoples have persecuted them everywhere, the more Christians have increased in number and grown in strength. (c. 248), ANF 4.617, 618, 621.

[CELSUS:]

"You surely do not say that if (in compliance with your wish) the Romans were to neglect their customary duties to gods and men, and were to worship the Most High,... that He would come down and fight for them, so that they would not need any other help than His. For this same God... promised of old this and much more to those who served Him. Yet, see in what way He has helped the Jews and you! Instead of being masters of the whole word, the Jews are left with not so much as a patch of ground or a home."

[ORIGEN'S REPLY - The value of prayer for national defense, for all people, for government leaders, and for all people in high positions] What would happen if, instead of only a relatively few persons believing (as at the present), the entire empire of Rome believed? They would pray to the Word, who of old said to the Hebrews, when they were pursued by the Egyptians: "The Lord will fight for you, and you will hold your peace." And if all the Romans united in prayer with one accord, they would be able to put to flight far more enemies than those who were defeated by the prayer of Moses... However, He had made the fulfillment of His promises dependent on certain conditions-namely, that they would observe and live according to His Law... But if all the Romans embraced the Christian faith (according to the supposition of Celsus), they would overcome their enemies when they prayed. Or rather, they would not war at all. For they would be guarded by that divine power that promised to save five entire cities for the sake of fifty righteous persons. Men of God are assuredly the salt of the earth. They preserve the order of the world. And society is held together as long as the salt is uncorrupted... When God gives to the Tempter permission to persecute us, then we suffer persecution. And when God wishes us to be free from suffering -- even in the middle of a world that hates us -- we enjoy a wonderful peace, trusting in the protection of Him who said, "Be of good cheer, for I have overcome the world." (c. 248), ANF 4.666.

In the next place, Celsus urges us "to help the king with all our might, to labor with him in the maintenance of justice, and to fight for him. Or if he demands it, to fight under him or lead an army along with him." To this, our answer is that we do give help to kings when needed. But this is, so to speak, a divine help, "putting on the whole armor of God." And we do this in obedience to the commandment of the apostle: "I exhort, therefore, that first of all, supplications, prayers, intercessions, and thanksgiving be made for all men; for kings, and for all who are in authority." So the more anyone excels in godliness, the more effective the help is that he renders to kings. This is a greater help than what is given by soldiers who go forth to fight and kill as many of the enemy as they can. And to those enemies of our faith who demand us to bear arms for the commonwealth and to slay men, we reply: "Do not those who are the priests at certain shrines... keep their hands free from blood, so that they may offer the appointed sacrifices to your gods with unstained hands that are free from human blood? Even when war is upon you, you never enlist the priests in the army. If, then, that is a praiseworthy custom, how much more so that when others are engaged in battle Christians engage as the priests and ministers of God, keeping their hands pure. For they wrestle in prayers to God on behalf of those who are fighting in a righteous cause, and for the king who reigns righteously. They pray that whatever is opposed to those who act righteously may be destroyed.

Our prayers defeat all demons who stir up war. Those demons also lead persons to violate their oaths and to disturb the peace. Accordingly, in this way, we are much more helpful to the kings than those who go into the field to fight for them. And we do take our part in public affairs when we join self-denying exercises to our righteous prayers and meditations, which teach us to despise pleasures and not to be led away by them. So none fight better for the king than we do. Indeed, we do not fight under him even if he demands it. Yet, we fight on his behalf, forming a special army-an army of godliness-by offering our prayers to God. And if Celsus would have us "lead armies in defense of our country," let him know that we do this too. And we do not do it for the purpose of being seen by men or for vainglory. For in secret, and in our own hearts, our prayers ascend on behalf of our fellow-citizens, as from priests. And Christians are benefactors of their country more than others. For they train up citizens and inculcate piety to the Supreme Being. And they promote to a divine and heavenly city those whose lives in the smallest cities have been good and worthy. (c. 248), ANF 4.667, 668.

Cyprian (Thascius Caecilianus Cyprianus) had been a pagan rhetorician at the time he converted to Christianity in 246. Within two years he was elected Bishop of Carthage, North Africa. When the Decian persecution began in 249, he was forced to flee and work underground. When he returned to Carthage in 251, he was opposed to the easy reconciliation of Christians who had lapsed or secured libelli pacis, certificates purchased from the civil authorities stating that they had sacrificed to pagan idols, when in fact no such sacrifice had been made. Two church councils (251 and 252) decided that they should be reconciled only after suitable penance and delay. Meanwhile the schism of Novatian arising out of the question of the lapsed, gave rise to the controversy over rebaptism Cyprian demanded the rebaptism of the schismatics on the ground that no one outside the Church could administer her Sacraments. The Church at Rome held that both schismatics and heretics could validly administer baptism. Persecution cut short the dispute. Cyprian was eventually captured by the Romans and was martyred by execution in 258.

Wars are scattered all over the earth with the bloody horror of camps. The whole world is wet with mutual blood. And murder-which is admitted to be a crime in the case of an individual-is called a virtue when it is committed wholesale. Impunity is claimed for the wicked deeds, not because they are guiltless-but because the cruelty is perpetrated on a grand scale! (c. 250), ANF 5.277.

Christians do not attack their assailants in return, for it is not lawful for the innocent to kill even the guilty. (c. 250), ANF 5.351.

We may not hate. And we please God more by rendering no return for wrong. Therefore, we exhort you to make satisfaction to God. Do this while you have the power, while there yet remains in you something of life... We do not envy your comforts, nor do we conceal the divine benefits. We repay kindness for your hatred. In return for the torments and penalties that are inflicted on us, we point out to you the ways of salvation. (c. 250), ANF 5.465.

The Christian has departed from rage and carnal contention as if from the hurricanes of the sea. He has already begun to be tranquil and meek in the harbor of Christ. Therefore, he should allow neither anger nor discord within his breath. For he must neither return evil for evil, nor bear hatred. (c. 250), ANF 5.488.

Even our enemies are to be loved. (c. 250), ANF 5:546.

The hand must not be spotted with the sword and blood -- not after the Eucharist is carried in it. (c. 250), ANF 5.488.

Only understand that [the martyrs] include men and women, both young men and old, both maidens and elderly matrons, both soldiers and private citizens. (c. 262), ANF 6.96.

There was also a body of soldiers ... Along with them, there was an old man, Theophilus. These men had taken up their position in a group in front of the tribunal. A certain person was on trial as a Christian, and he was about to deny [Christ]. As a result, these men stood round about and ground their teeth and made signs with their faces and stretched out their hands ... Eventually, they quickly ran up to the bench of judgment and declared themselves to be Christians, too. (c. 262), ANF 6.100.

Having been a well-known pagan teacher of rhetoric at Sicca, North Africa, and an outspoken opponent of Christianity, Arnobius himself converted to Christianity. His work, Adversus Nationes, defended the consonance of the Christian religion with the best pagan philosophy.

You allege that those wars of which you speak were sparked because of hatred of our religion. However, it would not be difficult to prove that (after the name of Christ was heard in the world), wars were not increased. In fact, they actually diminished in great measure by the restraining of furious passions. A numerous band of men as we are, we have learned from His teaching and His laws that evil should not be repaid with evil. Rather, it is better to suffer wrong than to inflict it. We would rather shed our own blood than stain our hands and our conscience with that of another. As a result, an ungrateful world is now enjoying-and for a long period has enjoyed-a benefit from Christ. For by His means, the rage of savage ferocity has been softened and has begun to withhold hostile hands from the blood of a fellow creature. In fact, if all men without exception ... would lend an ear for a while to His salutary and peaceful rules ... the whole world would be living in the most peaceful tranquility. The world would have turned the use of steel into more peaceful uses and would unite together in blessed harmony, maintaining inviolate the sanctity of treaties. (c. 305), ANF 6.415.

In 300 when Lucius Caecilius Firmianus Lactantius converted to Christianity, he was deprived of his post as Roman teacher of rhetoric at Nicomedia. In his later years he was summoned to Gaul (modern-day France) by Emperor Constantine to tutor his son Crispus. As a Christian apologist, his Divinae Institutiones seeks to commend Christianity to men of letters and for the first time to set out in Latin a systematic account of the Christian attitude to life. The De Mortibus Persecutorum describes the deaths of the the persecutors of the Church.

When the worship of God was taken away, men lost the knowledge of good and evil... They then began to fight with one another, to plot, and to achieve glory for themselves from the shedding of human blood. (c. 304-313), ANF 7.141.

If only God were worshipped, there would not be dissensions and wars. For men would know that they are the sons of one God. (c. 304-313), ANF 7.143.

Why would [the just man] carry on war and mix himself with the passions of others when his mind is engaged in perpetual peace with men? Would he be delighted with foreign merchandise or with human blood-he who does not know how to seek gain? For the Christian is satisfied with his standard of living. He considers it unlawful not only to commit slaughter himself, but also to be present with those who do it. (c. 304-313), ANF 7.153.

Religion is to be defended -- not by putting to death -- but by dying. Not by cruelty, but by patient endurance. Not by guilt, but by good faith. For the former belongs to evil, but the latter to the good... For if you wish to defend religion by bloodshed, tortures, and guilt, it will no longer be defended. Rather, it will be polluted and profaned... And, therefore, when we suffer such impious things, we do not resist even in word. Rather, we leave vengeance to God. We do not act as those persons who would have it appear that they are defenders of their gods, who rage without restraint against those who do not worship them. (c. 304-313), ANF 7.157, 158.

If desire is restrained, no one will use violence by land or by sea. No one will lead an army to carry off and lay waste the property of others… For what are the interests of our country, but the detriments of another state or nation? To extend the boundaries that are violently taken from others, to increase the power of the state, to improve the revenues-all of these things are not virtues. Rather, they are the overthrowing of virtues. (c. 304-313), ANF 7.169.

How can a man be just who hates, who despoils, who puts to death? Yet, those who strive to be serviceable to their country do all these things... When they speak of the "duties" relating to warfare, their speech pertains neither to justice nor to true virtue. (c. 304-313), ANF 7.169.

The Stoics say that the emotion of anger is the whetstone of virtue. As though no one could fight bravely against enemies unless he were excited by anger. By this, they plainly show that they neither know what virtue is, nor why God gave anger to man. If it were given to us for the purpose of using it to slay men, then what creature can be considered more savage than man? Who resembles the wild beasts more than that creature whom God formed for communion and innocence? (c. 304-313), ANF 7.185.

Therefore, it is not befitting that those who strive to keep to the path of justice should be companions and sharers in this public homicide. For when God forbids us to kill, He prohibits more than the open violence that is not even allowed by the public laws. He also warns us against doing those things that are considered lawful among men. For that reason, it will not be lawful for a just man to engage in warfare, since his warfare is justice itself. Nor is it lawful for him to accuse anyone of a capital charge. For it makes no difference whether you put a man to death by word, or by the sword instead. That is because it is the act of putting to death itself that is prohibited. Therefore, with regard to this commandment of God, there should be no exception at all. Rather, it is always unlawful to put a man to death, whom God willed to be a sacred creature. (c. 304-313), ANF 7.187.

It is not right that a worshipper of God should be injured by a another worshipper of God. (c. 304-313), ANF 7.271.

Then Diocletian, in furious passion, ordered not only all who were assisting at the holy ceremonies, but also all who resided within the palace, to sacrifice. And, if they refused, they were to be whipped. And further, by letters to the commanding officers, he ordered that all soldiers should be forced to the same impiety, under pain of being dismissed from the service. (c. 320), ANF 7.304, 305.

Diocletian said that it would be enough for him to exclude persons of that religion [i.e., Christians] from the court and the army. (c. 320), ANF 7.305.

CHRISTIAN TEACHINGS AND PRACTICES CHANGE: 313 A.D.

Will the Real Heretics Please Stand Up: A New Look at Today's Evangelical Church in the Light of Early Christianity, by David W. Bercot (Scroll Pub, 1989, excerpts from pages 129-132, 135, 93-94, 97-98) [book review]

Christianity had grown rapidly in the first three centuries, but after the conversion of Constantine the church mushroomed. At the time of the Edict of Milan (A.D. 313), probably about a tenth of the Roman Empire had converted to Christianity. But that had taken nearly three hundred years. In less than a hundred years after the Edict of Milan, nearly all of the other 90 percent had been "converted." The church believed that this rapid growth was a sure sign of God's approval. Having accepted this premise, the church quickly adopted virtually any practice that resulted in growth, including the use of images in worship -- a practice utterly loathsome to the early Christians. (p. 129)

Constantine soon became worried that this division in the church [over the issue of the Divine nature of the Son] would cause God to withdraw His blessings from the Roman Empire. When the old methods of the church failed to quiet this controversy, Constantine suggested a new approach: a church-wide council [Council of Nicaea in 325 A.D.] attended by representatives of every congregation in the empire. Although there had been meetings of church leaders in the past, such councils had always been on a smaller, localized scale. The various church representatives traveled at state expense to Nicaea, the site set for the meeting... The state also housed, fed, and entertained the representatives once they arrived in Nicaea. Constantine himself chaired the two-month long conference and actively participated in the discussions... Constantine persuaded the group to draw up a church-wide creed that specifically addressed the Divine nature of the Son. This was something quite new, for in the past each congregation used its own individual creed. (pp. 131-132)

Constantine himself proposed the wording of the new church-wide creed. To exclude the viewpoints of Arius, Constantine argued that the Greek term homoousios should be used to describe the relationship of Jesus and His Father. This term is usually translated into English by the phrase, "being of the same substance." ... In fact, several pre-Nicene Christian writers had used that term to describe the Deity of the Son. However, the term doesn't appear anywhere in Scripture, and it had never been included in any of the early congregational creeds. (p. 132)

Nevertheless, as a result of Constantine's persuasive skills, all but five of the church representatives at Nicaea eventually signed the newly-established creed. Constantine then banished into exile the five who wouldn't sign, one of whom was Arius. Constantine also decreed: "... If anyone shall be detected in concealing a book written by Arius, and does not instantly bring it forward and burn it, the penalty for this offense shall be death."... (p. 132)

Nicaea didn't bring about the church unity Constantine had hoped for. Actually, there was more division and fighting after Nicaea than there was before... Christians took up the sword and began viciously slaughtering one another over doctrinal differences. As the fabric of Christianity began to fade and tear, the emphasis continued to shift from the Christian life to Christian doctrine. (p. 135)

Before I began studying the early Christian writings, I had read in church history books that the early Christians generally refused military service. Those books said the early Christians weren't opposed to bloodshed; rather, they rejected military service in order to avoid participating in idolatrous practices. But that's not true. In their writings, the early Christians clearly stated they opposed war because they literally followed Jesus' commandments to "love your enemies" and "turn the other cheek." They viewed war as morally wrong... (p. 93)

At a time when military valor was considered to be the greatest of virtues, the early Christians stood alone in declaring that war was simply murder on a grand scale... (p. 94)

Consistent with its position of not legislating righteousness in other areas of life, the early church made no law that Christians could not serve in the army. The Scriptures only commanded a Christian to love his enemies and not to return evil for evil. Neither Jesus nor the apostles ever strictly forbade Christians to serve in the military. Since the Roman Empire was at peace during this early period of Christianity, it was quite possible for a Christian to spend his entire life in the army and never be required to shed blood. In fact, during this period, soldiers primarily served in a capacity similar to American police officers. Generally speaking, the church did not permit a Christian to join the army after his conversion. However, if a man was already a soldier when he became a Christian, the church did not require him to resign. He was only required to agree to never use the sword against anyone. One reason for this flexibility was that the Romans did not normally allow a soldier to leave the army until his time of service was completed. (pp. 97-98)

How Christians Made Peace with War: Early Christian Understandings of War, by John Driver (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1988, page 9-10,14-15,71,77)

In the period from about A.D. 90 until 313, early Christians opposed warfare because of the life and teachings of Jesus. Jesus taught love for enemies, with a goal of bringing them to faith and friendship in God's family, the church. This led early Christians to extend love and forgiveness to persecutors and to call evildoers to a new way of life. However, through the years, Christians slowly became involved in military life until they lost their peaceful approach to solving conflict. [From the "Forward" by J. Allen Brubaker] ...

It is noteworthy that between 100 and 313 no Christian writers, to our knowledge, approved of Christian participation in warfare. In fact, all those who wrote on the subject disapproved of the practice.

However, the position of the church in this regard was not absolute. For example, some Christians who served in the Roman army were not for that reason excluded from the church's fellowship. From the close of the New Testament period until about A.D. 170, however, no firm evidence has surfaced that shows Christians serving in the army. From about 173 onward we find a gradually increasing number of Christians in the Roman army. At first, no doubt, they were mainly soldiers who had become Christians and simply remained in the army. Later, this group increasingly included Christians who had become soldiers...

The objections of early Christians to warfare and military service were based on the teachings and example of Jesus. This led them to resist stubbornly the evils and the injustices of their time. But in doing this, they resolutely refused to respond to evildoers with violence. They were even willing to suffer persecution and death rather than to shed the blood of their persecutors. Respecting the lives of their enemies, they refused to contribute to the vicious spiral of violence...

Constantine ([reigned] 306-337) gained power in the Roman empire During the second decade of the fourth century. His military skill and political wisdom permitted him to triumph over his opponent in the struggle for power...

Up to the year 300, the [Latin term paganus] meant civilian opposed to soldier. Eventually, however, it came to mean non-Christian as opposed to believer. In similar fashion, Christians had made a complete change from not fighting as soldiers to all soldiers being Christians.

Because of the wide implications of this reversal, some have referrerd to this process as the "fall of the church." That a major shift had occurred is undeniable...

However, this change did not come unchallenged by Christians of the period. Basil, who succeeded Eusebius as bishop of Caesarea, complained about the violence of warfare.

Many gain glory from the valor they show in battle. They go so far as to boast of the murder of their brothers. Indeed, military courage and the triumphal arches erected by a general or the community exist only through the magnitude of murder.

He recognized that church leaders had been pressured to make a concession. Afterward, they no longer called acts of war and capital punishment murder. Even so, Basil required that the soldier with unclean hands abstain from communion for three years.

The Synod of Arles, called by Constantine in 314, contains an official statement of the church concerning military service. Article 3 states, "Concerning those who throw away their arms in time of peace, it is fitting that they should not be admitted to communion."

The Anatomy of a Hybrid: A Study in Church-State Relationships, by Leonard Verduin (Sarasota. FL: The Christian Hymnary Publishers, 1976, excerpts from pages 94-100, 103)

The early church was extremely mission-minded... But these were also days of persecution... Sacral societies like the ones all around the early church are not bound together by doctrine but by cult, by sacramental act or gesture... The persecutions resulted from the fact that the Christian faith was undermining the homogeneity of the sacral society, was eroding the unanimity at the level of men's highest loyalty...

The persecutions were inspired by the sacralist fear that the sacrament-bound society would come apart... The pagan emperor Decius, who, alarmed at the erosion of the ancestral faith at the spread of Christianity, ordered all householders to perform the pagan sacramental acts... House-to-house checks spotted all who constituted a threat to Roman sacralism, and those who were found guilty of non-compliance were subject to dire punishment.

As early as A.D. 175 a churchman named Meliton of Sardis was whispering into the ear of the rulers that "only when Christianity is protected and promoted ... does the empire continue in size and splendor." .. We must note the significance of this idea of political advantage, for it frequently comes to the surface when things begin to drift toward "Christian sacralism."

The movement toward "Christian sacralism" began in A.D. 313 with the promulgation of the Edict of Toleration (also known as the Edict of Milan because it was first published in that city). This edict declared the Christian religion to be religio licita (a permitted cult), a status it had not had before. The immediate effect was the cessation of persecution, for the edict made the old charge of sacrilege-treason no longer possible...

As a result of either this intransigence on the part of Christians or their unexpected numerical strength, soon after the Edict of Toleration a second edict was enacted that made Christianity the one and only legitimate faith. Christianity became the "right" religion, and all the rest were by implication "wrong." This sudden change of fortune for the Christian cause was largely the work of the emperor Constantine...

There is no evidence that Constantine had the faintest conception of progressive grace or the remotest understanding of authentic Christianity's unique structuring of human society. All that happened was that the roles were reversed: the Christian faith now occupied the place from which the ancestral faith had been expelled. Whereas Christianity had been persecuted hitherto, it now found itself in position to do some persecuting of its own -- which it began at once to do. And the reasons were the same; they are reasons inherent in sacralism.

Constantine considered himself the supreme authority in matters pertaining to the new faith, exactly as he had previously with reference to the old faith. He made it his business "to demonstrate with unequivocal verdict ... just how the divine being should be worshipped and what kind of cult is pleasing to him."...

Constantine was just as intolerant after his "conversion" as he had been before: now gatherings in the signature of the old religion were forbidden, often in the very words of the earlier proscriptions against Christian gatherings... Unbaptized persons were now required by imperial law to attend indoctrination classes, with a view to baptism. Those who refused to go to the font [to be baptized] after such indoctrination were subject to severe penalty. Any person who after such forced baptism relapsed into the old ways was subject to exterminatio [extermination, liquidation, death]

Constantine began at once to bestow all kinds of favors on the new religion. Elegant church structures ... were built at public expense... Sunday, the first day of the week, which had been known to the early church as the "Lord's Day," was now proclaimed a legal holiday with the pagan name "day of the sun." This return to the pre-Christian name for the Christian day of rest was no doubt due to the emperor's continued reverence for the sun as a deity...

Constantine began at once to subsidize the Christian church with lavish money payments, and functionaries of the church were paid out of the public treasury. This led to an unholy scramble for appointment, often by persons who had neither theoretical nor experiential knowledge of the new faith. This scramble was accelerated by decree that freed all clerics of public burdens, such as the paying of taxes...

It is quite clear that Constantine promoted the new faith mainly for its "immeasurable benefit to the commonwealth." He has left no evidence that he placed any high value on Christianity's doctrine of sin and grace, divine forgiveness, pardon and renewal, or love and mercy...

One of the most far-reaching enactments intended to suport the new sacralism was the legal identification of heresy with sedition, or crime against the state...

The sword that Jesus had told Peter to put away was again drawn from its sheath -- by men who wanted to be known as vicars of this Peter. And these self-styled vicars began at one to instruct the regnum to hack and to hew with it in the very domain from which Jesus had banished it. The kingdom of Christ now pitted army against army, sword power against sword power, and from this point on warfare was under the water of baptism, a very "Christian" enterprise. By the year 416 the army was declared closed to all but Christians...

Not only did the church now pronounce its blessing on wars fought for political agrandizement, as a tool for "causing the empire to wax greater and greater," but it also began to give its support to acts of violence perpetrated in the name of religion.

Since the churchmen had used political bait in seeking to gain the emperor to their side, it is not surpising that the man's conversion was politically tinted and tainted. It must also be borne in mind that the subject of this "conversion" was an emperor at war: Christianity appealed to him because he had become convinced that it would help him in the business of winning wars... The military man's interest predominate in the whole affair.

Early Christians Speak: Faith and Life in the First Three Centuries, Revised Edition - by Everett Ferguson (Abilene, TX: Abilene Christian University Press, 1987, "Christians and Military Service: Love your enemies" pages 221,226-227)

Early second-century literature gives no direct evidence in regard to Christian participation in military service. The general statements which do occur imply a negative attitude. They reflect the Christian abhorrence of bloodshed and a general Christian affirmation about peace...

These distinctions bring us to the core of the early Christian rejection of military service. The question is closely bound up with the early Christian separation from the world and what was meant by it. How much of that separation was cultural and how much was theological? Various explanations have been offered for the anti-militarism of the ancient church: the idolatry inherent in the army of the Empire held together by the worship of Rome and the empereor; the cultural isolation of the early church; the incompatibility of warfare with Christian ethics.

The problem of idolatry was real and is recognized by the authors cited. However, that does not seem to be the real reason for their objections, and that could at least in some cases be avoided.

The cultural isolation again is true for the formative periods of the church. Christianity began with Judaism, and one of the priviliges of the Jews was exemption from military duty. As the church reached out into the non-Jewish world, it drew its recruits from the underprivileged and those segments of society which ordinarily were not called on for military service. Thus a pattern of non-involvement was established before there was ever a question of its ethical propriety raised on a large scale. With the growth of the church and its increasing cultural accommodation, converts were won from the military, and some Christians went into the army as a matter of course. This situation raised the ethical and theological issue... The sayings of Jesus and the whole of his teaching were felt to be contrary to active participation in warfare... The evidence is that initially the numbers of Christians in the army were few. This can be sustained in spite of the fact that most of what we hear is from those who opposed participation. But the numbers grew steadily in the third century, and when Constantine recognized the church in the fourth century the situation altered radically. Finally Theodosius II in 416 decreed that only Christians could be in the army, for he wanted divine favor to rest with the armies of the Empire against the barbarian threat.

Victory over Violence: Jesus and the Revolutionists, by Martin Hengel (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1973, "Violence Overcome: The Message of Jesus" pages 45-59; "The Way of the First Christians" pages 60-67)

Read excerpts at: http://www.bibletexts.com/articles/victory-over-violence.htm.

BibleTexts.com's response to questions, referring to Constantine's role

See http://www.bibletexts.com/topical.htm#constantine.

"Why, of course, the people don't want war," Goering shrugged. "Why would some poor slob on a farm want to risk his life in a war when the best that he can get out of it is to come back to his farm in one piece? Naturally, the common people don't want war; neither in Russia nor in England nor in America, nor for that matter in Germany. That is understood. But, after all, it is the leaders of the country who determine the policy and it is always a simple matter to drag the people along, whether it is a democracy or a fascist dictatorship or a Parliament or a Communist dictatorship."

"There is one difference," I pointed out. "In a democracy the people have some say in the matter through their elected representatives, and in the United States only Congress can declare wars."

"Oh, that is all well and good, but, voice or no voice, the people can always be brought to the bidding of the leaders. That is easy. All you have to do is tell them they are being attacked and denounce the pacifists for lack of patriotism and exposing the country to danger. It works the same way in any country."

• Source1: http://www.snopes.com/quotes/goering.htm
• Source2: http://www.quotationreference.com/quotefinder.php?strt=1&subj=Hermann+Goering&byax=1&lr=
• Source3: http://www.answers.google.com/answers/main?cmd=threadview&id=235519

The men [Jesus' disciples] who were bidden to love their enemies were living in enemy-occupied territory, where resentment was natural and provocation frequent. They were not just to submit to aggression, but to rob it of its sting by voluntarily going beyond its demands. To those who believe in standing up for their individual or national rights this teaching has always seemed idealistic, if not actually immoral. But those who are concerned with the victory of the kingdom of God over the kingdom of Satan can see that it is the only realism. He who retaliates thinks that he is manfully resisting aggression; in fact, he is making an unconditional surrender to evil. Where before there was one under the control of evil, now there are two. Evil propagates by contagion. It can be contained and defeated only when hatred, insult, and injury are absorbed and neutralized by Love. (Saint Luke, by G.B. Caird, Philadelphia: Westminster, 1963, "The Law of Love, Commentary on Luke 6:27-38" pages 103-105. For a larger excerpt, see http://www.bibletexts.com/terms/agape-c.htm.)

What would happen if, instead of only a relatively few persons believing (as at the present), the entire empire of Rome believed? They would pray to the Word, who of old said to the Hebrews, when they were pursued by the Egyptians: "The Lord will fight for you, and you will hold your peace." And if all the Romans united in prayer with one accord, they would be able to put to flight far more enemies than those who were defeated by the prayer of Moses... However, He had made the fulfillment of His promises dependent on certain conditions -- namely, that they would observe and live according to His Law... But if all the Romans embraced the Christian faith (according to the supposition of Celsus), they would overcome their enemies when they prayed. Or rather, they would not war at all. For they would be guarded by that divine power that promised to save five entire cities for the sake of fifty righteous persons. Men of God are assuredly the salt of the earth. They preserve the order of the world. And society is held together as long as the salt is uncorrupted... We enjoy a wonderful peace, trusting in the protection of Him who said, "Be of good cheer, for I have overcome the world." (c. 248), ANF 4.666.

In the next place, Celsus urges us "to help the king with all our might, to labor with him in the maintenance of justice, and to fight for him. Or if he demands it, to fight under him or lead an army along with him." To this, our answer is that we do give help to kings when needed. But this is, so to speak, a divine help, "putting on the whole armor of God." And we do this in obedience to the commandment of the apostle: "I exhort, therefore, that first of all, supplications, prayers, intercessions, and thanksgiving be made for all men; for kings, and for all who are in authority." So the more anyone excels in godliness, the more effective the help is that he renders to kings. This is a greater help than what is given by soldiers who go forth to fight and kill as many of the enemy as they can. And to those enemies of our faith who demand us to bear arms for the commonwealth and to slay men, we reply: "Do not those who are the priests at certain shrines... keep their hands free from blood, so that they may offer the appointed sacrifices to your gods with unstained hands that are free from human blood? Even when war is upon you, you never enlist the priests in the army. If, then, that is a praiseworthy custom, how much more so that when others are engaged in battle Christians engage as the priests and ministers of God, keeping their hands pure. For they wrestle in prayers to God on behalf of those who are fighting in a righteous cause, and for the king who reigns righteously. They pray that whatever is opposed to those who act righteously may be destroyed.

Our prayers defeat all demons who stir up war. Those demons also lead persons to violate their oaths and to disturb the peace. Accordingly, in this way, we are much more helpful to the kings than those who go into the field to fight for them. And we do take our part in public affairs when we join self-denying exercises to our righteous prayers and meditations, which teach us to despise pleasures and not to be led away by them. So none fight better for the king than we do. Indeed, we do not fight under him even if he demands it. Yet, we fight on his behalf, forming a special army -- an army of godliness-by offering our prayers to God. And if Celsus would have us "lead armies in defense of our country," let him know that we do this too. And we do not do it for the purpose of being seen by men or for vainglory. For in secret, and in our own hearts, our prayers ascend on behalf of our fellow-citizens, as from priests. And Christians are benefactors of their country more than others. For they train up citizens and inculcate piety to the Supreme Being. And they promote to a divine and heavenly city those whose lives in the smallest cities have been good and worthy. (Ante-Nicene Fathers, Volume 4, pages 667-668)

• The Anatomy of a Hybrid: A Study in Church-State Relationships, by Leonard Verduin (Sarasota. FL: The Christian Hymnary Publishers, phone: 941-955-8521, 1976, especially discussions regarding Zealots' anti-Roman guerilla warfare in the first century A.D. and Constantine's church-state war theology from 313 A.D. onward, where being a "Christian" was a requirement for military service, on pages 58-59, 63-69, 73-74, 94-104)
• Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture, New Testament, 1a, Matthew 1-13 (edited by Manlio Simonetti, Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2001, "Biographical Sketches" pages 299-307)
• The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, edited by Elizabeth A. Livingstone (NY: Oxford University Press, 1977, pages 1-566)
• A Dictionary of Early Christian Beliefs: A Reference Guide to More Than 700 Topics Discussed by the Early Church Fathers, edited by David W. Bercot (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1998, "Who's Who in the Ante-Nicene Fathers" pages xv-xx, "Military life" page 449; "War" pages 676-682. This is an excellent book that should be in the library of anyone seriously exploring early Christianity.) For excerpts browse: http://www.bibletexts.com/terms/war.htm#decb
• Early Christians Speak: Faith and Life in the First Three Centuries, Revised Edition - by Everett Ferguson (Abilene, TX: Abilene Christian University Press, 1987, "Christians and Military Service: Love your enemies" pages 219-228)
• Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, Second Edition, edited by Everett Ferguson (NY: Garland Publishing, 1998, "War" pages 1171-1174)
• How Christians Made Peace with War: Early Christian Understandings of War, by John Driver (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1988)
• Oxford Companion to the Bible - edited by Bruce M. Metzger and Michael D. Coogan (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993, "War" page 791-792)
• Oxford Companion to Christian Thought - edited by Adrian Hastings, Alistair Mason, and Hugh Pyper (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000, "War" pages 746-748)
• Saint Luke, by G.B. Caird (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1963, "The Law of Love, Commentary on Luke 6:27-38" pages 103-105. For excerpts browse: http://www.bibletexts.com/terms/agape-c.htm
• Victory over Violence: Jesus and the Revolutionists, by Martin Hengel (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1973, "Violence Overcome: The Message of Jesus" pages 45-59; "The Way of the First Christians" pages 60-67. For excerpts browse: http://www.bibletexts.com/articles/victory-over-violence.htm
• Will the Real Heretics Please Stand Up: A New Look at Today's Evangelical Church in the Light of Early Christianity, by David W. Bercot (Scroll Pub, 1989, "Is War Morally Wrong?" pages 93-98. This book has an excellent summary on the issue, based entirely on the words and practices of leading Christians prior to 313 A.D.) [book review]
• War and peace (additional bibliography) at http://www.bibletexts.com/bibliogr/12his-nt.htm#ethics-and-social-issues
• War and peace (topical index) at http://www.bibletexts.com/war-and-peace/index.htm
• War, as viewed by early Christians - as described in the writings of 16 leading Christians before 313 A.D. (texts from the Bible and other early Christian writings) at http://www.bibletexts.com/terms/war.htm